PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERLOCK FROM FLAKES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
ABSTRACT
The need for the construction sector to be sustained by innovative technology targeted at conserving the natural resources and protecting the environment cannot be overemphasized. The use of plastic wastes as binders in the production of interlock bricks has both engineering and environmental implications. The use of interlock bricks produced from plastic wastes is becoming more popular, finding applications in parking areas, compounds, open spaces, streets, and in minor and major roads. The way and manner plastic wastes generated are managed in developing countries especially Nigeria is dangerous and disturbing, due to their non-biodegradable nature. The research is aimed at using plastic wastes as binding groundmass in place of cement in the production of interlock bricks. This will go a long way in solving part of our environmental and ecological problems resulting from indiscriminate dumping of plastic wastes and also reduces the pollution and geographical disturbances that result from the excavation of limestone. Plastic wastes (LDPE type) were melted at high temperatures and mixed in different proportions (70:30, 75:25 and 80:20) with sand to produce sample interlock bricks. The same mold was also used to produce cement interlock bricks as our control for comparative studies. These interlock bricks were subjected to compressive-strength and water-absorption tests. The results of these tests revealed that interlock bricks produced from plastic waste in the form of flakes show better compressive strength and water absorption when compared to the bricks produced from cement. Plastic interlock bricks also showed low water absorption than the cement blocks. The application of plastic waste in the production of interlock brick is an innovative way of disposing plastic waste littered all over the place, thereby cleaning the environment. The cost of plastic waste interlock bricks when compared with cement interlock bricks is stronger, tougher, environmental friendly and economical. The study has clearly established that plastic interlock bricks are better alternative to normal cement interlock bricks.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title PageCertification
Table
of Contents
List
of Figures
List of Tables
CHAPTER
ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of Study
1.2
Problem Statement
1.3
Objectives of Study
1.4
Justification of Study
1.5 Scope of Study
CHAPTER
TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
The Concept of Waste Management
2.2
Brief History of Waste Management
2.3
Principles of Waste Management
2.3.1
Waste Hierarchy
2.3.2
Life-Cycle of a Product
2.3.3
Resource Efficiency
2.3.4
Polluter-Pays Principle
2.4 Classification of Waste
2.4.1
Form and Nature of the Waste
2.4.2
How it is Produced in our Environment
2.5
Zero Waste Hierarchy
2.6
Waste Collection and Transportation
2.7
Waste Disposal Methods
2.8
Adverse Effect of Waste
2.9
Introduction to Waste Plastic
2.10
Using Waste Plastic as Construction Material
3.1
Materials
3.1.1
Apparatus
3.1.2
Reagent
3.1.3
Materials Preparation
3.2
Methodology
3.2.1
The Overall Working Procedure
3.2.2
Test Conducted
CHAPTER
FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Results
4.1.1
Compressive Strength
4.1.2
Water Absorption
4.2 Discussion
CHAPTER
FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion
Recommendation
References
Appendix
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Every
human activities produce waste. Waste is not just an environmental problem but
also an economic loss with severe social implications. Waste may be defined as
unwanted materials or substance, toxic or non-toxic, biodegradable or
non-biodegradable capable of causing harm to our environment, economy and
social well-being if not properly managed or disposed. Wastes are unwanted
materials but they are not entirely useless (Van de Klundert and Justine,
2001), they have hidden utility or value that can lead to economic growth and
prosperity if these billions of dollars sector is harness properly.
Urbanization,
population growth, and economic development bring about waste generation. The
increasing prosperity of countries and the movement towards urban areas
increases the per capita generation of waste. This rapid population growth
along with urbanization makes providing adequate waste collection services and
treatment more difficult. Solid waste management affects every single person in
the world, whether individuals are managing their own waste or governments are
providing waste management services to their citizens. As nations and cities
urbanize, develop economically, and grow in terms of population, the World Bank
estimates that waste generation will increase from 2.01 billion tonnes in 2016
to 3.40 billion tonnes in 2050. At least 33% of this waste is mismanaged
globally today through open dumping or burning. .Global waste could increase by
70% by 2050. High-income countries make up only 16% of the world population,
but they generate 34% (683 million tonnes) of the world waste. Low-income
countries, on the other hand, account for 9% of the world total population and
produce about 5% (93 million tonnes) of the world waste (World Bank, 2018).
However,
high-income countries implement more sustainable waste management practices.
For instance, approximately 29% of their waste is recycled and 6% is composted.
Another 22% is incinerated and only 2% is dumped openly. Upper-middle-income
countries dispose of their waste in landfills, which are usually the first step
towards managing waste sustainably. In low-income countries, open dumping is
still the most common method of waste management. Nearly 93% of waste is burned
or dumped in the streets, open lands, and waterways. The threat posed by poor waste
management is particularly prominent in low-income countries where
waste-collection rates are often below 50 per cent. Piles of garbage along
river banks; thick smoke from open burning of mixed, and partly toxic, waste;
pungent odours; flies and rodents are an all too familiar scene (World Bank,
2016).
Ever-faster
population growth, urbanization and economic development are producing
increasing quantities of waste that are overburdening existing waste-management
systems. Public waste systems in cities cannot keep pace with urban expansion;
rapid industrialization is happening in countries that have not yet developed
the appropriate systems to deal with hazardous and special wastes; and the
growing trade in waste poses significant challenges. Waste management is one of
the most complex and cost-intensive public services, absorbing large chunks of
municipal budgets even when organized and operated properly.
Basic
human needs such as clean water, clean air and safe food are jeopardized by
improper waste management practices, with severe consequences for public
health. Poor waste collection can lead to the spread of disease and improper
waste disposal - for example, hazardous waste mixed with household waste can be
extremely harmful for workers in the waste sector, adjacent communities, and
the environment. Besides having serious economic, environmental and health
implications, unsound waste management has a social dimension. Like most
environmental hazards, deficiencies in waste management disproportionately
affect poorer communities as waste is often dumped on land adjacent to slums.
Left with the choice between going hungry and waste picking, one per cent of
the urban population in developing countries choose to sift through the
detritus on dumps and dirty streets. Millions of these waste pickers are being
exposed to hazardous substances as they try to secure their and their families'
survival. Lead, mercury and infectious agents from healthcare facilities - as
well as dioxins and other harmful emissions released during the recovery of
valuable materials from e-waste - not only affect the health of waste pickers,
but further contribute to air, land and water contamination. Even in countries
with proper waste management systems, simply collecting and disposing of waste
out of sight is no solution. In waste management, there is no such thing as
'throwing away'. A lot of the waste that we discard can be prevented by
changing the design of a product, producing more with fewer resources, reusing,
recycling, etc. However, there will always be some waste that cannot be
prevented and will require proper handling.
There
are significant opportunities for organizing the waste sector, with all its
complexities, in a way that is more economically, environmentally and socially
sustainable. Indeed, if handled properly, waste management has huge potential
to turn problems into solutions and to "lead the way towards sustainable
development" through the recovery and reuse of valuable resources; the
creation of new business and employment opportunities, including for the
informal sector; reduced emissions of greenhouse gases from waste management
operations, such as landfills; and conversion of waste to energy. The benefits
are huge, for both climate and business. Those who work in the UDS$410 billion
waste sector already understand the great potential of sound waste management.
So, let's consider waste not as a problem, but as an opportunity to recover and
convert resources, a paradigm shift that is gaining increasing currency. Whatever
perspective one takes, the message is clear: waste matters (UN Environment,
2012).
Plastic
is a relatively cheap, durable and versatile material. These properties have
led to the creation of many thousands of products, which have brought benefits
to society in terms of economic activity, jobs and quality of life. Plastics
can even in many circumstances help reduce energy consumption and greenhouse
gas emissions, especially when compared with the alternatives, but sometimes
independently such as in the cases of insulation and applications in wind and
solar photovoltaic power generation (Fachbuch, 2019) . However, plastic waste
can also impose negative externalities such as greenhouse gas emissions or
ecological damage. It is usually non- biodegradable and therefore can remain as
waste in the environment for a very long time; it may pose risks to human
health and the environment; in some cases, it can be difficult to reuse and/or
recycle. Since the 1950s, around 8.3
billion tons of plastic have been produced worldwide, over the past 50 years,
world plastic production has doubled killing more than 1.1 million seabirds and
animals every year (Mwamba, 2015) and even if we choose to ignore this fact and
stick to incineration of plastic waste, it is not a sustainable model for all
types of plastic waste. Research shows that recycling plastic saves twice as
much energy than burning it in an incinerator. The pollutions and geographical
disturbances that arise from the excavation of limestone used for making cement
are disturbing and the depletion of the natural resources demand and
sustainable alternative.
In
this research project, we seek to give a short, lucid and detailed theoretical
explanation on the concept of waste management. We will seek to defined and
explained the concept of waste management, the principles of waste management,
types of waste, how to achieve a zero waste environment and economy with
practical approach and theoretical explanation, waste transportation and
handling and the various waste disposal methods. This article will also
consider specifically and experimentally how to convert plastic waste (LDPE)
mixed with sand into interlock brick, this is just one area of the waste to
wealth initiative. Production of interlock from plastic waste will be presented
both from an economical and environmental point of view.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Present waste management practices are not economically sustainable and environmentally friendly and when they are seldom done, they lack the holistic approach and urgent attention needed for the effective management of solid waste. The research on waste is broad, we are going to narrow our study to solid waste focusing on plastic waste. In this study, we are checking to see the economical and environmental viability of using plastic waste particularly PET (poly ethylene terephthalate) as a replacement for cement (binding agent) for interlocking bricks by producing the Interlock with different plastic to sand ratio and testing for the compressive strength and water absorption properties of the polymeric interlock. A comparative study of the cement interlock and the optimum polymeric interlock ratio will be done to see if polymeric interlock can be a suitable engineering and construction building materials.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
- To utilize non-biodegradable plastics (PET) in
interlocking bricks.
-Production of interlocking bricks that are good
engineering and construction building materials and can act as a suitable
replacement of concrete interlocking bricks.
-The creation of a friendly, flourishing and safe
environment by reduction, reuse and recycling of solid waste e.g. waste
plastics.
-To create sustainable prosperity by converting waste
to wealth. Hence, fostering economic progress and job opportunities that will
help to radically reduce unemployment and poverty.
-Introduction of a new type of building material that
is cost friendly and easily accessible.
1.4
JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
Waste generation is inevitable during the production
and consumption of resources due to the law of unintended consequences. The
production and consumption of intended goods gives rise to additional
unintended output due to side reactions, production error, industrial spill
etc. Consumption waste arises after the primary or intended used of product’s being satisfied, anything left
after the primary used becomes waste to the environment if no secondary used of
such product or product material is been envisioned. Hence, this research
project is essential for not just the reduction of these waste materials but
also the conversion of waste to usable product. This research project aims at
achieving this through the application of heat on the thermoplastic (PET
bottles) and mixing it with sand to obtain an optimum ratio.
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY
-Establishing the industry: this involves checking the
economic feasibility of setting up a company and an industry at large which
utilizes waste PET bottles to produce interlocking tiles or blocks for
construction.
-Increasing the strength and other engineering
properties by varying the ratio and adding other materials: different ratios vary
the property of the product.
-Protection to
environment: it is already known fact that proper management of these PET
bottles waste and other PET waste reduces harmful effects on our environment.
-Cost of production: cost of production of interlocking tiles using the traditional method (cement) is compared with the cost of production using waste PET bottles.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE CONCEPT OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste
management is a commonly used name and defined as the application of techniques
to ensure an orderly execution of the various functions of collection,
transport, processing, treatment, and disposal of waste. Waste management (or
waste disposal) is the activities and actions required to manage waste from its
inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport,
treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the
waste management process.
Waste
can be solid, liquid, or gas and each type have different methods of disposal
and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including
industrial, biological and household. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to
human health. Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction
and processing of raw materials. Waste management is intended to reduce adverse
effects of waste on human health, the environment or aesthetics.
Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches. A large portion of waste management deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.
2.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
For
most of mankind’s history rubbish disposal was not a major problem. The amount
generated had little impact simply because there wasn’t that many of us.
Natural resources were consumed resulting in mostly ash and human waste. At
those levels these by-products were quickly and safely degraded back into the
ecosystem. Man-made items such as tools were highly prized and handed down to
successive generations. The making of stone, wood and even early metal tools
had little environmental impact. With the age of industrialization came
urbanization, and as a result large populations quickly arose. Cities soon
became very crowded and the accumulation of waste grew. With no waste disposal
rules in place the streets became choked with refuse. The idea of a municipal
authority with powers to remove rubbish was talked of in the mid-18th century
by Corbyn Morris a customs official at the time. He believed the health of the
population to be of ‘great importance’ and that public management should be
undertaken to clean the city of London.
Unfortunately
it wasn’t until a century later before legislation was introduced. With cholera
on the increase causing large scale mortality, a public health debate ensued.
In 1842 renowned social reformer Edwin Chadwick penned a report ‘The Sanitary
Condition of the Labouring Population’ he put forward a persuasive argument for
the need for proper removal and management facilities of refuse stating that
the health and well-being of the population was at stake. This report played an
important role in securing the first law on waste collection. The 1846 the
Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act started the ball rolling for the
ever evolving regulation of waste management. With this bin men were born. The
first city wide authority in charge of them was the Metropolitan Board of
Works. With the introduction of the Public Health Act 1875 every household had
to deposit their weekly rubbish in a ‘movable receptacle’ for disposal, and so
the dust-bin came about ("The More You Know” “Waste Management",
2016)
Horse
drawn open backed carts were the first collection vehicles used followed by
steam driven trucks at the close of the 19th century. These vehicles soon
developed with screw systems and finally the hydraulic ram. Hydraulic rams have
been used ever since having been refined over the years. With so much refuse
now being produced incinerators were designed as a method of disposal. The city
of Nottingham saw the first one built quickly followed by others. These
primitive plants were however extremely unpopular as they produced a lot of
airborne ash.
Landfill soon became the preferred method of waste management. Basically burying the rubbish in a big hole, this method is still used in most countries. Using old unused quarries or open cast mining sites landfill was seen as a relatively cheap solution. Badly designed and maintained landfill can have some problems. Rats, mice and seagulls all love landfill sites, windblown litter and liquid toxins draining into the surrounding land are just some. Modern sites are lined to prevent leakage; the garbage is compacted and covered at each delivery helping to deter vermin. As environmental issues become ever more urgent such as pollution and the unsustainable consumption of natural resources, waste disposal methods have had to advance with more emphasis on reclaiming usable materials from rubbish. Turning what is left into energy using several different technologies. The goal these days is to have as little as possible wasted.
2.3 PRINCIPLES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
2.3.1 Waste Hierarchy
The
various waste management options can be placed in an order known as the Waste
Management Hierarchy which reflects the relative sustainability of each. One of
the key principles underlying waste management policy is to ensure that waste
is dealt with as high up the Waste Management Hierarchy as possible. Since all
waste disposal options have some impact on the environment, the only way to avoid
impact is not to produce waste in the first place, and waste reduction is
therefore at the hierarchy. Re-use, followed by recovery techniques (recycling,
composting and generating energy from waste) follow, while disposal to landfill
or by incineration, the worst options, and are at the bottom of the
hierarchy (Sivapalan, Mohamad, Mohamad,
and Muhd-Noor, 2005).
Although
the hierarchy holds true in general terms, there will be certain wastes for
which the waste management options are limited or for which the ‘Best
Practicable Environmental Option’ (i.e. the option causing least environmental
impact) lies towards the bottom of the hierarchy. In deciding what the most
appropriate disposal route is, both environmental and economic costs and
benefits need to be considered. This decision should be reached taking into
account all the costs and impacts associated with waste disposal, including
those associated with the movement of waste.
Wherever
possible the Proximity Principle should be applied. This recognizes that
transporting waste has environmental, social and economic costs so as a general
rule; waste should be dealt with as near to the place of production as
possible. This has the added benefit of raising awareness about waste and
encouraging ownership of the problem at the local level.
2.3.2 Life-cycle of a Product
The
life-cycle begins with design, and then proceeds through manufacture,
distribution, and primary use and then follows through the waste hierarchy's
stages of reduce, reuse and recycle. Each stage in the life-cycle offers
opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to
redesign to minimize waste potential, to extend its use. Product life-cycle
analysis is a way to optimize the use of the world's limited resources by
avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste.
2.3.3 Resource Efficiency
Resource
efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and
development cannot be sustained at current production and consumption patterns.
Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can
replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact
from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material
extraction to last use and disposal.
2.3.4 Polluter-pays Principle
The
polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting party pays for the impact
on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to
the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the
unrecoverable material.
Waste
may be classified based on the form and nature of the waste or based on the way
it is produced in our Environment.
2.4.1 Form And Nature of The Waste
1.
Liquid Waste
Liquid
waste is commonly found both in households as well as in industries. This waste
includes dirty water, organic liquids, wash water, waste detergents and even
rainwater. You should also know that liquid waste can be classified into point
and non-point source waste. All manufactured liquid waste is classified as
point source waste. On the other hand, natural liquid waste is classified as
non-point source waste.
2.
Solid Waste
Solid
waste can include a variety of items found in your household along with
commercial and industrial locations. Solid waste is commonly broken down into
the following types:
Plastic
waste: This consists of bags, containers, jars, bottles and many other products
that can be found in your household. Plastic is not biodegradable, but many
types of plastic can be recycled. Plastic should not be mix in with your
regular waste, it should be sorted and placed in your recycling bin.
Paper/card
waste: This includes packaging materials, newspapers, cardboards and other
products. Paper can easily be recycled and reused so make sure to place them in
your recycling bin.
Tins
and metals: This can be found in various forms throughout your home. Most
metals can be recycled. Consider taking these items to a scrap yard or your
closest recycling depot to dispose of this waste type properly.
Ceramics
and glass: These items can easily be recycled. Look for special glass recycling
bins and bottle banks to dispose them correctly.
If
you still cannot grasp the concept of recycling, then an incredibly easy and
efficient way to dispose solid rubbish is by hiring a waste removal company to
take care of your recycling for you.
3.
Organic Waste
Organic
waste is another common household. All food waste, garden waste, manure and
rotten meat are classified as organic waste. Over time, organic waste is turned
into manure by microorganisms. However, this does not mean that you can dispose
them anywhere. Organic waste in landfills causes the production of methane, so
it must never be simply discarded with general waste.
4.
Recyclable Waste
Recyclable
waste includes all waste items that can be converted into products that can be
used again. Solid items such as paper, metals, furniture and organic waste can
all be recycled. Instead of throwing these items in with regular waste, which
then ends up in landfills, place them in your yellow recycling bin or take them
to your local recycling depot. If you’re unsure whether an item is recyclable
or not, look at the packaging or the diagrams on the lid of your yellow
recycling bin. Most products will explicitly state whether they are recyclable
or not.
5.
Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste includes all types of rubbish that are flammable, toxic, corrosive and reactive. These items can harm you as well as the environment and must be disposed of correctly. Therefore, we recommend you make use of a waste removal company for proper disposal of all hazardous waste.
2.4.2 How It Is Produced In Our
Environment
1.
Municipal Wastes:
Municipal
Waste commonly consists of items we use on an everyday basis then dump it.
Cloths, paints, wires, glasses, unwanted food, etc. come under municipal waste.
These wastes come from schools, factories, but primarily come from our homes.
The composition of municipal waste differs in each municipality and keeps
changing with time. Municipal waste divides further into:
a.
Household waste:
Materials
like unused food, clothes, unwanted paper, damaged batteries, etc. come under
household wastes. Agricultural wastes also come under household waste.
b.
Commercial waste:
Wastes
coming from any kinds of businesses, trading factories, schools, etc. come
under commercial waste.
c.
Demolition waste:
As
clear from the word ‘demolition’, these wastes come from the destruction of any
structure made of concrete, wood, bricks, etc. Sometimes demolition wastes can
also be recycled.
2.
Hazardous Wastes:
Hazardous
waste refers to solid, liquid, or gaseous wastes from industries that have
either of the properties:
Corrosiveness
Ignitability
Reactivity
Toxicity
Treatment
of these wastes is necessary before the industries dump it. Hazardous wastes
are unsafe for human health and the environment at large. Hazardous waste
further divides into:
a.
Industrial Waste:
Waste
produced by industries includes any material that isn’t useful for the
industrial manufacturing process. Wastes such are chemicals, pigments, ashes;
metals etc. come under industrial waste.
b.
Biomedical Waste:
Any waste coming from medical facilities such as hospitals, medical colleges, research centers, etc. come under biomedical waste.
2.5 ZERO WASTE HIERACHY
This
Refer to the various approaches that can be ensured into law or practice in
order to minimize the amount of waste generated. The 3 R's of waste management;
reduce, reuse, recycle are the primary step taken to ensure minimal waste
generation. In this 21st century, the 3 R's isn't enough to achieve this goal.
Hence, a more effective and efficient approach to ensure zero waste generation
include the following
1.
Reduce and conserve materials: The best way to avoid waste is to ensure that
waste is not generated in the first place. The concept of reduce is about
conserving materials by using only what is needed at the moment in order to
avoid waste and also managing resources effectively and efficiently.
2.
Refuse: The concept of refuse centre on encouraging producer to produce
products or packaging that reduces the amount of waste generated in the
environment. The concept of refuse makes sense when we understand that waste
produced in our environment is a direct function of the product design, value
chain of the product and life cycle of the products.
3.
Return: The idea of refuse may not be very effective in approach because human
activities generate waste. Hence, the idea of return centre on creating systems
that make it possible for consumers to returned their waste back to the
producer. This can only be made possible if this idea is part of the firm value
chain. A typical example is the soft drink company where the bottle of the
consumed products is returned back to the producer.
4.
Re-use: The concept of reuse doesn't just solve the environmental problem of
waste but also provide an economic alternative for products that should be tag
waste. Waste isn't useless materials but unwanted materials. The concept of
reuse helps to repurpose the intended use of a products or materials. This
required creativity as it helps to maintain the material value and function.
5.
Recycle: The concept of recycle deals with the various processes that aids the
conversion of waste into useful substances or less harmful substance that can
be effectively discarded into our environment. These useful substances may be
biodegradable or non- biodegradable. The concept of recycle is increasingly
popular due to the advanced technology that aid in the conversion of waste to
useful substances and also the range of products or materials that can be
produced from recyclables.
6. Regulate disposal, dispersal, or destruction of resources.
2.6 WASTE COLLECTION AND
TRANSPORTATION
In
most municipal (e.g. cities, industrial area etc.) areas, waste are collected
and transported through curbside collection. In curbside collection, the
residents of such areas are encouraged to segregate their waste and dispose
them in the appropriate garbage bins. They are then collected on daily basis by
vehicles which transport them to the appropriate site for further treatment
while in rural settlement, waste are been heap on landfill site.
Curbside Collection is a service provided to households for the disposal of Refuse. In this service, trucks collect waste and deliver it to either a Landfill or a Recycling plant where it is processed for reuse. How this service is executed is left to the municipalities either alone or in partnership with other communities, which means that policies for what is considered recyclable along with when Refuse is collected will vary. In some cases, the service is overseen by a department within the municipality or through a private firm under contract.
2.7 WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS
There
are various methods through which waste can be dispose and we are going to
discussed about the three major method which include
1.
Landfill
In
this process, the waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and
spread as a thin layer in low-lying areas across a city. A layer of soil is
added after each layer of garbage. However, once this process is complete, the
area is declared unfit for construction of buildings for the next 20 years.
Instead, it can only be used as a playground or a park.
2.
Incineration
Incineration
is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to
incombustible matter such as ash and waste gas. The exhaust gasses from this
process may be toxic; hence it is treated before being released into the
environment. This process reduced the volume of waste by 90 per cent and
considered as one of the most hygienic methods of waste disposal. In some
cases, the heat generated is used to produce electricity. However, some
consider this process not quite environmentally friendly due to the generation
of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
3.
Composting
All organic materials decompose with time. Food scraps, yard waste, etc., make up one of the major organic wastes we throw every day. The process of composting starts with these organic wastes being buried under layers of soil and then, are left to decay under the action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. This results in the formation of nutrient-rich manure. Also, this process ensures that the nutrients are replenished in the soil. Besides enriching the soil, composting also increases the water retention capacity. In agriculture, it is the best alternative to chemical fertilizers.
2.8 ADVERSE EFFECT OF WASTE
Wastes
negatively affect our environment, health, economic and social well-being which
include
1.
Waste contaminate our soil and make it unfit for crop production. They include
toxic waste, oil spillage, non-biodegradable waste etc. Soil contamination does
not only affect plant growth but also unhealthy to humans and animals feeding
on those plants.
2.
Liquid waste such as acid and bleach react with atmospheric compounds and
produce products which contaminate the air. Also, burnt solid waste such as
plastic and paper emit gases which are harmful to the atmosphere and the sites
of landfill create unpleasant smell which contaminates the atmosphere.
3.
Hazardous waste, toxic liquid chemicals, untreated sewage etc. can leech into
the ground and ultimately into ground water or can be seep into water bodies
which contaminate the water, kill aquatic life and also cause disease and death
to humans who drink this untreated contaminated water and those who feed on
this aquatic plant and animal.
4.
Improper disposal of waste can greatly affect the health of the population
living nearby the polluted area or landfills. Exposure to improperly handled
wastes can cause skin irritations, blood infections, respiratory problems,
growth problems, and even reproductive issues.
5.
It cannot be stressed enough: our carelessness with our waste and garbage does
not just affect us. Animals likewise suffer the effects of pollution caused by
improperly disposed wastes and rubbish. Animals who consume grasses near
contaminated areas or landfills are also at risk of poisoning due to the toxins
that seep into the soil.
6.
Disease carrying pest breed around our wastes and if not properly manage can
transmit disease to plant and animal. Also, micro-organisms breed around this
waste and can cause disease and death to both plant and animal.
7.
Adversely affecting the local economy in the sense that everyone wants to stay
and live in a healthy, clean, fresh, and sanitary place. A city with poor waste
management will certainly not attract tourists or investors. Landfill
facilities that are mismanaged can cause the local economy to sink, which can
then affect the livelihood of the locals. Economically, landfill site cause
decrease in the price of the land around such site.
8.
There is revenue in recycling. Cities that do not implement proper removal and
recycling of wastes miss on this. They also miss out on the resources that can
be reused and on the employment opportunities that a recycling centre brings.
9. It can cause extreme climate change in the sense that decomposing waste emits gases that rise to the atmosphere and trap heat. Greenhouse gases are one of the major culprits behind the extreme weather changes that the world is experiencing.
2.9
INTRODUCTION TO WASTE PLASTIC
It is
a well-known fact
that plastic waste
is an important issue for
everyone and needs
to be resolved
on an urgent basis,
as it‘s hazardous
effects is deteriorating
life on earth. Waste
in form of
plastic is increasing
day by day,
but a permanent solution
to it is
still not found.
Landfills, which is used
as a method
to solve the
problem of plastic
disposal is indirectly harming
the nature. Even
landfills are glut
with waste, hence demanding
an urgency for
the plastic disposal problem. Plastic
to humans is
available in a
variety of forms such
as LDPE, HDPE, PET, Bakelite, etc.
It is generally
made from long chains
of hydrocarbons along
with additives and can
be easily moulded
into desired finished
products.
Resources
such as petroleum, etc. which are limited are being utilized in plastic
manufacturing. Plastic is
available as polymer but
to obtain its
various form, it
is generally broken down
in the presence
of a catalyst
to form monomers
such as Vinyl, Propylene,
Styrene, Benzene, etc. to
get different categories of
plastic, these monomers
are chemically polymerized and
two examples of
the same are Thermo plastics and Thermoset plastics. However, there is a significant
difference between these two categories of plastic. In thermoplastics, plastic
is heated and can be
moulded into any shape,
however, it‘s advantage
is that it
can be reheated
and plastic will be
further softened. It includes various products such as PPS,
LDPE, PVC, HDPE, PET, etc.
Thermoset plastics are totally different from thermoplastics. It can be melted into its liquid form but once after melting when its solidified it cannot be reheated and remains in the same shape. Products of this category are Nylon, Bakelite, etc. Owing to the number of side effects use of plastic have instead of decrease in the consumption, its utilization is increasing rapidly. This is proved by the estimated difference in plastic consumption in 1950‘s and its current consumption. Estimates have shown that plastic consumption increase from 5 million tons in 1950‘s to nearly 100 million tones at present. Every country around the world is trying to recycle the plastic waste at its best. India‘s rate of recycling plastic is highest with the rate of 60%. While other country has lower rates than this.
According to Webster’s dictionary, polymers are defined as various complex organic compounds, produced by polymerization, capable of being moulded, extruded, cast into various shapes and films, or drawn into filament and then used as textile fibres. Polymers are made from small repetitive units called monomers. Plastics are synthetic or man-made polymer. Plastics are similar in many ways to natural resins found in trees and other plants. Plastics are organic polymeric materials which consist of giant molecules and can be formed into shapes by one or more of variety of process such as extrusion, moulding, casting or spinning etc. (Elsevier Science publication, 1992). Plastics also contain some desirable characteristics such as strength to weight ratio, excellent thermal properties, and insulation properties as well as resistant to chemical and solvent (Air product and chemical Inc., 1996). The structure and degree of polymerization of a given polymer determines its characteristics.
2.10 USING WASTE PLASTIC AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
Plastic is a non-bio-degradable substance which takes thousands of years to decompose that creates land as well as water pollution to the environment. The quantity of plastic waste in Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is expanding rapidly. It is estimated that the rate of usage is double for every 10 years. The Plastic usage is large in consumption and one of the largest plastic wastes is polyethylene (PE). The utilization of earth based clay material resulted in resource depletion and environmental degradation. As amount of clay required for brick is huge, in this project these waste plastics are effectively utilized in order to reduce the land space required to dump these wastes. This creates the prevention from various harmful diseases. Shredded polyethylene (PE) bottle are cleaned and added with fine aggregate at various ratios to obtain high strength bricks that possess thermal and sound insulation properties. This is one of the best ways to avoid the accumulation of plastic waste. It also helps to conserve energy, reduce the overall cost of construction and hence in this project, attempts made to manufacture the plastic sand bricks by utilizing the waste plastics.
Building materials like bricks, concrete block, tiles, etc. are popularly used in construction. However, these materials are expensive and hence common people find it difficult to easily afford them. Moreover, these building materials require certain specific compositions to obtain desired properties. Plastic is one of the recent engineering materials which have appeared in the market all over the world. It is a material consisting of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. By definition, plastics can be made to different shapes when they are heated. It exists in the different forms such as cups, furniture, basins, plastic bags, food and drinking containers and they become waste material. Accumulation of such wastes can result into hazardous effects to both human and plant life. Therefore, need for proper disposal, and if possible, use of these wastes in their recycled forms arises. Nowadays, human apply all of its potentiality to consume more. The result of this high consumption is nothing unless reducing the initial resources and increasing the landfill. In recent times, human from the one hand is always seeking broader sources with lower price and from the other hand is following the way to get rid of the wastes. The waste today can be produced wherever humans footprints be existed, and remind him that they have not chosen the appropriate method for exploitation of the nature.
There are various physical and chemical properties which makes plastic ideal building materials. These properties includes
It is relatively cheap to convert into building materials
It is readily available and easy to mould
It is durable, waterproof and insulating
It is resilient, energy efficient, impermeable and does not conduct heat
It is strong, light and easy to recycle
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1
MATERIALS
3.1.1
Apparatus
Weighing
Scale
Sieve
Stirrer
Bucket
Fuel
Source e.g. kerosene stove, gas stand etc.
Flat
Pan
Metallic Mould
3.1.2
Reagent
Used Engine Oil
3.1.3
Materials Preparation
Plastic
Plastic
bottle is collected as waste from the various trash bins in FUTO. The waste
bottle is taken to the polymer engineering laboratory where they are sorted,
treated, dried and later shredded and put in a various bag according to their
colour. Waste plastic are shredded in to small pieces through a mechanical
shredder. Waste plastic used are in the form of flakes in order to have a
maximum contact area and effective melting. The plastic acts as a binding agent
holding the sand particles firmly together.
Figure 3.1: A Plastic Shredding Machine
Sand
The sand used is sharp and fine sand. It is been collected close to Otamiri River in FUTO and later dried and put in a bag. Sand is used to provide bulk, strength, and other properties to construction materials.
Trial
Mix Design of Plastic Block
The
ratio of plastic to sand was taken as trial and run as a percentage for the
following
Basis:
4kg of total mixture. It is gotten primarily based on the dimension of our
mould
Table 3.1:
Ratio Of Sand To Plastic In Interlock Produced
|
Sand (%) |
Plastic (%) |
|
80 |
20 |
|
70 |
30 |
|
60 |
40 |
|
50 |
50 |
|
40 |
60 |
Literature
shows us that the plastic shouldn't be more than the sand since it acts as a
binder while experimental run show us that the range of mixture that's hard
enough to be used as plastic lies within
Table 3.2: Feasibility Region For A
Good Engineering Interlock Bricks
|
Sand (%) |
Plastic (%) |
|
80 |
20 |
|
75 |
25 |
|
70 |
30 |
Hence,
after the first run we focused on producing only the ratio of the control mix
range and we then carried out test after production. Literature also tells us
the optimum brick samples lies within 3:1 of sand to plastic which is 75:25.
Mould
The
mould can be whatever shape you wish – they are constructed in the same way as
mould for concrete floor tiles. If the
walls of the mould are more than 4cm deep however, the material will stick to
the sides and not come out properly. The mould must be metallic so that it do
not deformed due to the high temperature of the plastic-sand mixture.
Figure 3.2: Metallic Mould
3.2
METHODOLOGY
3.2.1
The Overall Working Procedure
1.
Select the right plastic
It is important to only select the correct type of plastic. This is because different types of plastic melt and burn at different temperatures and have different physical qualities. The process described here works well with LDPE. Water bags, plastic bottle, non-woven plastic shopping bags and plastic film are usually made of LDPE. It is important that you do not use other types of plastic– it could be harmful to your health. Make sure your plastic waste is mainly clean. Remove all materials that are not LDPE (including other plastics).
2.
Melt
Light a small fire under the flat pan and gently heat it. Add the plastic waste. As it warms up it will reduce in size. Light the plastic at the top using a small flame to help it melt down. Keep mixing the melting plastic until it is a black liquid with no lumps. Make sure the fire does not get too hot. Keep adding plastic gently at the side of the melted plastic until it melts down to a black liquid. Do not stand directly over the melting barrel; try to avoid breathing any gases from the fire; and take care as tools can get hot.
3.
Mix
Keep mixing thoroughly until all the plastic has melted and there is a consistent black liquid. Sometimes LDPE lumps can remain even at very high temperatures. Stirring and heating must continue until all lumps are removed and a homogenous paste is obtained, since they affect the strength of the material. Do not let the liquid get so hot that it burns strongly – it will not work as a building material if this happens. A few flames from the liquid are acceptable. Add sand until you have the required mixture and keep mixing so that the plastic, which acts as a binder, is very well mixed in and looks like grey cement.
4.
Mould
Prepare the mould by making sure it is very clean, with no pieces of plastic on it from previous moulding, and well oiled. Quickly remove the mixture using the metallic spoon and put it into the mould. The mixture is very hot so be careful and wear gloves. Press and work the mixture into the mould so there are no air gaps.
5.
Set
Allow the hot mixture in the mould to set for a few minutes, repeatedly shaking the mould to loosen the edges (a rocking motion works well). Keep trying to lift the mould. When the mixture has hardened enough that the slab will not collapse, remove the mould and leave.
3.2.2
Test Conducted
I.
Compressive Strength Test
It can be defined as the capacity of a
material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size. In this test,
a force is applied to the top and bottom of a test sample, until the sample
fractures or is deformed.
Figure 3.3: A Compression Testing Machine
The
compressive strength is calculated by using the equation,
C.S
= F/A
Where,
C.S=
Compressive strength of the specimen (in KN/m2).
F=
load applied to the specimen at fracture (in KN).
A= Cross sectional area of the specimen (in m2)
Apparatus Used
Weighing
Scale
Compression
Test Machine
Brick Specimen
Test Procedure
The
mass of the brick specimen is measured. Uniform mass of brick specimen is used
in order to accurately compare result within different ratio.
Three specimen of the same ratio were place separately in the compression test machine and load was applied until the brick specimen fracture. The load at fracture is obtained and recorded. Values of the three specimens were compared in order to obtain an accurate result.
II.
Water Absorption Test
It is defined as the amount of water absorbed
by a material and is calculated as the ratio of the weight of water absorbed to
the weight of the dry material. Water absorption gives an idea on the internal
structure of aggregate. Aggregates having more absorption are more porous in
nature and are generally considered unsuitable, unless found to be acceptable
based on strength, impact and hardness tests. A good brick should not absorbed
water more than 20% of its own weight.
Water
Absorption of a Material is calculated by Using this Equation
Water
absorption = [(A – B)/B] x 100%
Where,
A
is the mass of materials after immersed 24 hours in water
B is the mass of the materials before immersed in water
Apparatus Used
Weighing
Scale
Tank
filled with Water
Brick Specimen
Test Procedure
The mass of the dry brick specimen is measured. Uniform mass of brick specimen is used in order to accurately compare result within different ratio. The dry brick is immersed in the tank filled with water for 24 hour. After 24 hour, the brick is taken out in its wet form and the mass measured. The difference between the wet weight and the dry weight is used to obtain the percentage of water absorbed.
III.
Efflorescence Test
Efflorescence is a whitish crystalline deposit on surface of the bricks. Usually magnesium sulphate, calcium sulphate and carbonate of sodium and potassium are found in efflorescence. The movement of groundwater into the foundations of buildings and by capillary action into brickwork is very often the cause of efflorescence.
Apparatus Used
A
shallow flat bottom dish containing sufficient distilled water to completely
saturate the specimens. The dish may be made of glass, porcelain or glazed
stoneware.
Distilled
water
Brick
specimens
Test
Procedure
Fill
distilled water in shallow dish and place one end of brick in dish. Water
should fill in dish such that bricks should immerse in water up to 25 mm depth.
Bricks
soaked in Distilled water
Place
this whole arrangement in a warm ventilated room such that whole water is
absorbed by the specimen and the surplus water will get evaporated.
Cover
the dish containing brick with suitable glass cylinder so that there will not
excessive evaporation from dish.
When
whole water get absorbed and brick appears to be dry, place a similar quantity
of water in the dish and allow it to evaporate as before.
After this process examine the bricks for efflorescence and report results.
IV.
Structural Test
This test simply checks for the various physical properties of the Interlock brick. This test ensures that the brick produced should look alike in terms of color, dimension, texture etc.
V.
Fire Retardant Test
Different materials have their various fire resistance properties. While no material can for sure resist the destructive effect of fire. A good building materials should be able to withstand the destructive effect of fire for as much time as possible before fire fighter arrive. Fire retardant test is about how long an interlock brick can resist the destructive effect of fire. This test cannot be used as a standard for two reasons; first, the amount of heat used in the test and the heat generated in a fire outbreak might be far greater and the source of fuel which influenced the class of fire is another constraint in carrying out a standard test.
CHAPTER
FOUR
RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1
RESULTS
4.1.1
Compressive Strength
The
following result was obtained from different ratio. 3 different sample were
used for the same ratio in order to obtained a more accurate result
Table 4.1
Summary of the Compressive Strength obtained for different ratios
|
Sample
Ratio |
Sample Weight (KG) |
Crushing Strength (KN) |
|
70:30 A1 A2 A3 |
2.41 2.40 2.39 |
150 145 150 |
|
75:25 B1 B2 B3 |
2.40 2.42 2.41 |
175 165 170 |
|
80:20 C1 C2 C3 |
2.50 2.50 2.49 |
140 120 120 |
|
Control D1 D2 D3 |
2.43 2.40 2.42 |
155 155 155 |
Control
refers to our light weighted cement interlock bricks which we will use as our
basics and minimum entry to compare if our polymeric interlock is suitable as a
good engineering building materials or not.
Figure 4.1: Effects of Ratio of Plastic to Sand to Compressive Strength
4.1.2
Water Absorption
Table 4.2:
Summary of the Water Absorbed by different ratio
|
Sample Ratio |
Dry Weight (KG) |
Wet Weight (KG) |
Net Gain (KG) |
|
70:30 A4 |
2.40 |
2.47 |
0.07 |
|
75:25 B4 |
2.42 |
2.48 |
0.06 |
|
80:20 C4 |
2.50 |
2.58 |
0.08 |
|
Control D4 |
2.41 |
2.48 |
0.07 |
Figure 4:2: Effects of Ratio of Plastic to Sand on the Amount of Water Absorbed
4.2
DISCUSSION
From
the compressive strength against ratio of sand to plastic in fig 1, we observe
that starting from the 70:30 ratio, there is a steady increase in the
compressive strength till it reaches the 75:25 ratio which is where we obtained
the maximum compressive strength, then further increase in the ratio of sand to
plastic show decline till it reaches the minimum point in our graph at ratio
80:20. The plausible explanation for this increase from 70:30 to 75:25 is that
there is still pore space between the sand and plastic mixture hence the
mixture is not tightly compacted. This is clearly seen in the 50:50 ratios
where the Interlock was light and noticeably shows excess plastic to sand
mixture. Hence, as the ratio of sand to plastic is increased from 70:30 ratio,
the molecule of sand becomes tightly compacted together hence the compressive
strength continue to increase till it reach the maximum point at 75:25 of sand
to plastic or in simple form 3:1 of sand to plastic. On further increase of the
ratio from 3:1 to 4:1 of sand to plastic, the compressive strength decrease
steadily, the plausible explanation of the decrease is that the amount of sand
is much compare to the plastic which acts as a binder that's why it is observed
that it takes more time for the 80:20 ratio to form a homogeneous mixture. The
plastic find it harder to bind the excess sand particle, hence the binding
strength of the plastic is reduce. We can observe the rough surface of the
80:20 ratio produce which clearly show that the sand is in excess when compare
to plastic. Hence, the compressive strength continues to reduce beyond the
75:25 ratios. Finally, we observe from fig 1 that ratio 80:20 produces the
minimum compressive test in our graph, this clearly shows that beyond the
maximum, there is a huge fall in the compressive strength of the Interlock.
This literally means the feasibility of producing a construction materials in
this case polymeric interlock bricks reduces rapidly beyond the 75:25 ratio.
From
the percentage of water absorbed against ratio of sand to plastic in fig 2, we
observe that starting from the 70:30 ratio, there is a steady decrease in the
percentage of water absorbed till it reaches the 75:25 ratio which is where we
obtained the lowest percentage of water absorbed, then further increase in the
ratio of sand to plastic beyond this point show steady increase till we reaches
the highest percentage of water absorbed at 80:20 in our graph. The plausible
explanation why 70:30 have higher percentage of water absorbed than 75:25 is
due to the pores spaces which exist between the sand and plastic mixture allowing
water molecules to get absorbed easily, we can see that as the ratio of sand to
plastic increase from 70:30, there is a steady reduction in the percentage of
water absorbed, this is due to the fact that the pore space has reduced as the
sand and plastic mixture become closely and tightly compacted together under
stronger intermolecular force. Hence, the percentage of water absorbed reduced
steadily till it reaches the 75:25 ratio. It is not surprisingly that the 75:25
ratios have the maximum compressive strength and least percentage of water
absorbed. Let's do this simple thought experiment for a while, imagine two
similar foam immersed in water, one freely immersed completely in water while
the other squeeze tightly with a thin rope and completely immersed in water,
you will agree with me that the foam that will absorbed the least amount of
water when removed is the squeeze foam and that at the same time the squeeze
foam is under stronger force than the free foam, the force is what make it
squeeze in the first place. On further increase of the sand to plastic ratio
from 75:25 to 80:20 or from 3:1 to 4:1, the percentage of water absorbed
increase steadily to the highest percentage of water absorbed in our graph, the
plausible explanation is that the sand particle is much when compare with the
plastic which acts as the binder. Hence, the binding force reduces so that the
plastic will be able to held lightly the excess sand particle, hence the
percentage of water absorbed increase since the intermolecular force is weak
till we reaches our end point at 80:20 ratio in our graph.
Finally, when we compare our different ratio with our control in terms of compressive strength and water absorption test, we found out only our 75:25 stand out as a good engineering and building materials. Other substances from colour, chemical etc. can be added in order to make our best ratio a better and marketable engineering and building materials but at least we have been able to find out that waste plastic can be converted first to flakes then to building interlock and it will serve in the same way as interlock made from cement.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
CONCLUSION
From this research, we have been able to see that waste in general is a global issue that determines serious attention. Then, next we look into the feasibility of converting waste plastic to interlock bricks. We found out that the ratio of sand to plastic alters the engineering properties of the interlock produced. We found out by novel approach that the feasibility region of producing an engineering interlock bricks lies between 70:30 to 80:20 of sand to plastic ratio. We found that the engineering and building properties of polymeric interlock increases as the ratio of sand to plastic increases till we reach the 75:25 ratio, beyond that show a huge decrease in the engineering and building properties of polymeric interlock. From test conducted and calculation, we found that the 75:25 ratio of sand to plastic gives the possible best for use in building and construction materials. We also found out that our best ratio is a better engineering and building materials when compare to our control made from cement and sand. Finally, we saw that flakes made from plastic waste can completely replace cement and serve well as a binder to sand in making interlock bricks.
RECOMMENDATION
In further studies about this research topic, I recommend a more advanced shredding machine which will reduce the flakes size to the minimum and also ensure uniformity among the flakes particles. I also recommend a disjointed metallic mould for easier removal of the products. I also recommend that soil, fly ash etc. to be added to check whether the feasibility region might be much more than what we obtained and hence having more ratio that are much better than our control. I also recommend that the production process should be carried out in an open environment due to emissions of hazardous gases that we encountered. Also, I recommend extreme care, skill know how support when attempting to produce polymeric interlock for the first time. Finally, I recommend field test to be carried out in order to further validate our result we obtained from this research.
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APPENDIX
1.
Area of the Interlock
Area
of the Interlock= Area of Rectangle - 2(Area of Trapezium)
=
LB - 2[0.5(a + b) h]
Where
L=21.3cm, B=13.2cm, a=9cm, b=13.1cm, h=2.6cm
Area
of Rectangle= 13.2 x 21.3 = 281.16cm2
2(Area
of Trapezium)= 2[0.5(9+13.1)2.6]=57.46cm2
Area
of Interlock= 281.16 - 57.46 = 223.7cm2
To convert from cm2 to m2
100
cm = 1 m, 1 cm = 10^-2 m
Squaring
both sides, we have
1
cm2 = 10^-4 m2
Hence,
Area of Interlock
=
223.7 cm2 = 223.7 x 10^-4 m2
2.
For Compressive Strength
I.
For Ratio 70:30 and Sample A average
C.S=F/A=
150/ (223.7x10-4) =6705.4 KN/m2
II.
For Ratio 75:25 and Sample B average
C.S=F/A=
170/(223.7x10-4) =7599.5 KN/m2
III.
For Ratio 80:20 and Sample C average
C.S=F/A=120/(223.7x10-4)=
5364.3 KN/m2
IV.
For Control
C.S=F/A=155/(223.7x10-4)=6928.9
kN/m2
3.
For Water Absorption
I.
For Ratio 70:30 and sample A4
Water
Absorption = (0.07/2.40) x 100% = 2.9%
II.
For Ratio 75:25 and sample B4
Water
Absorption = (0.06/2.42) x 100% = 2.5%
III.
For Ratio 80:20 and sample C4
Water
Absorption = (0.08/2.50) x 100% = 3.2%
IV.
For Control
Water
Absorption = (0.07/2.41) x 100% = 2.9%
4.
Converting the 70:30, 75:25, 80:20 ratio of sand to plastic to unity for
comparison purpose
i.
70/30 = 2.33:1
ii.
75/25 = 3:1
iii. 80/20 = 4:1
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